 Jesus in Context Advent 2005: A Holy Man in the Wilderness, and a young girl of NazarethThe Gospel readings for the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Sundays of Advent each center around important characters in the life of Jesus who themselves resided, more or less on the relative margins of 1st century Palestinian society – Mary (4th Sunday, Lk 1:26-38), and John the Baptist (2nd and 3rd Sundays, Mk 1:1-8; Jn 1:6-8; 19-28). Focusing first on the 2nd and 3rd Sunday’s of Advent, we are introduced to the enigmatic character John the Baptist by means of two different gospels. According to Mark, John is the one crying out in the wilderness for the preparation of the coming of the Lord, clothed in camel hair with a leather belt, and eating wild honey and locust. A sight to see, this man in the Judean wilderness (Mk 1:5; Mt 1:1, 5) – outside the safety and control of the ordered social construct. John was one who had “fallen off the grid,” but who nevertheless, became the religious focal point for many rural peasants of the Judean countryside, and of non-elites in Jerusalem. John is probably best perceived as an eschatological prophet of Israel, a Holy Man in direct contact with the realm of the divine, commissioned to care for Israelites on the margins of Israelite society. John was baptizing (literally in the Greek, “immersing” or “dipping”) people in the Jordan river in a prophetic, ritual act of purification while they were confessing their sins – this in preparation for the Lord’s coming. In John’s Gospel, we learn that “the Jews” had sent priests and Levites* – functionaries of the Temple in Jerusalem (remember, the Baptist’s father was also a Temple priest; cf. Lk 1:5ff.) – to interrogate John since he was performing such an important religious function outside of the control of Temple and priesthood. They ask him “Who are you?” John’s response is peculiar in that he does not answer in the then usual terms of identity, neither familial (“I am John, son of Zechariah”), nor geographical (“I am John of Judah”). Instead, he responds emphatically by answering a question he was not even asked. A literal translation of the Greek text relates “And he (John) confessed, and he did not deny, but confessed that ‘I am not the Messiah’” (Jn 1:20). So, in John’s Gospel, the identity of the Baptist is secured negatively, in terms of who he is not, rather than in terms of who he is. This naturally draws the reader’s attention to the one who John’s interrogators “do not know” (Jn 1:26!), namely, Jesus of Nazareth in Galilee. What about those who sent the priests and Levites? Who are “the Jews” in John’s Gospel? The usual translation of the Greek “hoi Ioudaioi” in the Fourth Gospel is “the Jews.” Thus, when modern North American Christians read this, we often imagine “the Jews” in terms of religious practice and belief. It is likely however, that in John’s Gospel, “hoi Ioudaioi” refers not to “the Jews,” that is, those who practiced 1st century Judaism, but rather to a people that live in a particular region, that is “the Judeans” – that is, folks who lived in Judea. In addition, to the best of our knowledge, Jews who practiced and believed 1st century Judaism, did not refer to themselves as “hoi Ioudaioi,” but rather, as “Israel” or “Israelites” (Mt 8:10; 10:6!; 15:24!; et al; Mk 12:29; Lk 1:16 et al; Jn 1:47; Acts 2:22; 3:12; et al; Rom 9:4!; 11:1!; 2 Cor 11:22). The descriptor “hoi Ioudaioi” was what “outsiders,” non-Israelites called Israelites. That said, it is interesting that John so often portrays “the Jews” (“the Judeans”) as adversaries of Jesus throughout his Gospel (cf. Jn 1:19; 2:18, 20; 5:10, 15ff.; 6:41, 52; 7:1, 11, 13; 9:18, 22; 10:24, 31, 33; 11:8; 13:33; 18:14). Could this be because the community of John’s Gospel was located outside of Judea? Galilee perhaps, where Jesus was from? Although Galileans were not Judeans, many of them did in fact, practice their Israelite religion much like their Judean neighbors – inclined toward Temple and Torah in the context of covenant. In any case, when we come across “the Jews” in the Fourth Gospel, it is important to recognize that these adversaries of Jesus were not so because they practiced and believed a different religion than Jesus’. Galileans, Judeans, and Pereans were all Israelites – children of Abraham, and so children of the promise. Turning now to the 4th Sunday of Advent, the story of the Annunciation has the angel Gabriel visiting Mary in “a town of Galilee called Nazareth” (Lk 1:26), a village about fifteen miles west of the southern end of the Sea of Galilee. People like Mary living in Nazareth, lived under the political-economic shadow of the city Sepphoris, four miles to the north. Life was hard in Nazareth, which on the whole was principally concerned with the production of food – likely a single agricultural product – the bulk of which was shipped to market at Sepphoris. Compared to the urban “consumer” elites residing in Sepphoris, the peasant “producers” of Nazareth experienced a rustic, meager, and difficult existence exacerbated by debt manipulation, blackmail, and over taxation (cf. Lk 3:13-14). Such was life in the Galilee, and in the shadow of Sepphoris and Rome. A daughter living all of her young life rooted deeply in a paternal family, Mary may well have at times been perceived as a potential burden, specifically, to the father’s honor as suggested by Sirach: “A daughter keeps her father secretly wakeful, and worry over her robs him of sleep; when she is young, lest she does not marry, or if married lest she be hated…” (cf. Sirach 42:9-11). On the other hand, since we know Mary was betrothed to a man named Joseph of the House of David (Lk 1:27) – not “engaged” of her own free choice in a modern, Western-European sense – her importance to her family toward maintaining or even expanding political, economic, and kinship bonds between extended families via a successful marriage, was considerable. The very fabric of life in the community at Nazareth depended on such intricate ties to keep the producing mechanisms running smoothly, and Mary had little choice in the matter. On the other hand, there was this brave young peasant girl, Mary, who was visited by an angel, and informed that she would “conceive in her womb and bear a son” (Lk 1:31). It was Mary’s risky obedience, risky as it bore the burden of the hopes and fears of her village and family counting on a successful betrothal to Joseph. It was ultimately, Mary’s trusting fiat* that would be the first in a chain of salvific events initiated by God for all creation. In this season of Advent, let us ask God for courage to engage in such risky, hope-full obedience as we wait for the birth of our Lord. *Key Terms (cumulative from previous installments): Casuistry: The study and resolution of moral/ethical questions in specific circumstances in light of Torah. Unfortunately, most Christians today understand the practice of casuistry to be by definition dishonest, hypocritical, and with an eye toward trivialities rather than matters of greater importance. Indeed, Jesus accuses Pharisees of this very sort of casuistry (Mt. 23:23). However, the practice of casuistry could have been either benign or malignant, as is the case in many similar situations in life. That said, examples of benign casuistry are plentiful in the Mishnah (for example, Nedarim, 4.2; 9.8). Fiat: Latin, often translated “let it be done.” “Mary’s fiat” refers to her open-ness, her willingness to trust what God was up to when she received the angel Gabriel’s announcement that she would bear the Son of God. Halachah: Refers to the “path one walks” in following God’s law. Specifically, it is the entirety of the customs, commandments, and divine ordinances (the 613 Mitzvoth!) that a Jew is obliged to follow within the context of the covenant. Hillel: The first of the Pharisaic patriarchs appointed by Herod to preside over the Sanhedrin in 30 BC. Hillel is one of the most well known Pharisaic sages of the 1st Century, and famous for his liberal inclination toward interpreting Torah. Josephus (b. AD 38): Jewish historian whose works represent one of our most important primary sources for information about 1st Century Judaism. Leviticus Rabbah: Seventh Century midrash (interpretation) on Leviticus. Matthew’s Community: A phrase used by biblical scholars to refer the particular community of believers in Jesus Messiah to/for whom Matthew composed his Gospel. Likewise, Mark’s, Luke’s, and John’s “community.” Mishnah: The compilation of the Oral Torah, or oral tradition(s), completed around AD 200. Most biblical scholars recognize that many of the traditions found in the Mishnah may go as far back as the 2nd Century BC. “Berakoth,” “blessings” or “benedictions” in Hebrew, is the title of the first section of the Mishnah. Priests and Levites: These were the functionaries of the Temple cult in Jerusalem during Jesus’ day. It was their job to actually prepare and perform the sacrifices – animal and food & drink offerings – on the altar in the Temple courtyard. Rabbinic Judaism: Judaism as it emerged from the destruction of the Temple in AD 70. Most likely grounded in the Pharisaic tradition(s) and reaching a pinnacle around AD 200 with the compilation of the Mishnah. Shammai (d. AD 30): Another well known Pharisaic patriarch and contemporary of Hillel and Jesus. Shammai is famous for a more conservative and rigid interpretation of Torah. Shechinah: The divine presence of God. Shema: The Shema is the prayer (Deut. 6:4-9) that best encapsulates the theology and the piety of ancient Judaism. “Hear (Shema!) Oh Israel, the Lord our G-d, the Lord is One” (Deut. 6:4). Tefillah: “Prayer” in Hebrew. Tefillah refers to the obligatory benedictions/blessings usually prayed daily along with the Shema. Bibliography: The Babylonian Talmud, Soncino Press, 1990. The Midrash Rabbah, IV, Soncino Press, 1983. Yaacov David Herzog, The Mishnah: Berakoth – Peah – Demai, Soncino Press, 1980. Hyman Maccoby, Jesus the Pharisee, SCM Press, 2003. Jacob Neusner, The Mishnah: A New Translation, Yale University Press, 1988. John Paul II, Crossing the Threshold of Hope, Knopf, 1995. Jonathan L. Reed, Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: A Re-Examination of the Evidence, Trinity Press International, 2002. E P Sanders, Jewish Law from Jesus to the Mishnah, SCM Press, 1990. E P Sanders, Judaism: Practice & Belief, 63 BCE-66CE, SCM Press, 1994. |